Islam Death and Burial Essay

When a Muslim knows that they are dying relatives and friends are sent for; these people gather around the bed. The dying person must then ask for forgiveness from God and their loved ones. If possible, the last word spoken or heard by a dying Muslim is ‘God’, this is also the first word heard by a Muslim, just after they are born. As soon as possible, after the person has died, friends and family must give the body a final ritual washing and pray. Those people chosen to wash the body must be of the same sex and a close member of the family. This ritual washing can either take place in a mosque, in the home or in a community facility. After this washing has taken place the body is anointed with spices or scents, and then wrapped in clean, white, unstitched cloth from head to toe. The amount of cloth differs from male to female; men are covered in three pieces of cloth and five for a woman. During this procedure incense must be burnt. The body is now washed and dressed appropriately and is carried on foot to the chosen site for burial. Muslims often have their own cemeteries or small plots of land for burying the dead, for the simple reason that the body’s head must be facing makkah when placed in the ground. Muslim prefer not to bury the dead in a coffin, so not to waste valuable wood, the body is often advised to be placed in a coffin to follow special health regulations. There is no difference in how the corpse is dressed, whether the person was rich or poor, important or humble in death and in Allah’s eyes they are the same. No expenses are to be made at the funeral. The funeral must be simple; leaders do not have a special cemetery, but the same funeral as others of less importance. While the body is being lowered into the ground the mourners say the following: ‘In the name of God We commit you to the earth, according to the Way of the Prophet of God.’ The mourners then sprinkle down a little earth while saying: ‘We created you from it, and return you to it, and from it we will raise you a second time.’ (Surah 20:55) The body is then covered up with remaining earth. The money the family would otherwise spend on a tombstone is given to charity. There is to be no other writing on the grave except the person’s name. Mourning is very strict after a Muslim funeral, mourning can last for a few days or up to forty days during this time the family must not attend any happy parties or celebrations, even weddings. On the seventh and fortieth days there are some time special meals held for the friends and family. Widows are allowed to mourn for four months and ten days, they must not remarry in this period but are able to afterwards. While the family are mourning friends often bring food to offer support and to comfort the family with prayers. Islam does not discourage grieving which it considers a mercy from God. Even the Prophet Muhammad wept when his infant son Ibrahim, the only son born to his wife Miriam, died. He said, â€Å"The eyes shed tears and the heart feels pain, but we utter only what pleases our God. O Ibrahim! We are aggrieved at your demise.† The Prophet also wept when his granddaughter died. Then the Prophet said to his followers, â€Å"This weeping is the mercy that God has placed in the hearts of his servants.† ‘God fixes the time-span for all things. It is He who causes both laughter and grief; it is He who causes people to die and to be born; it is He who causes male and female; it is He who will re-create us anew.’ (surah 53:42-47) ‘When a person dies his deeds come to an end except in respect of three matters which are left behind: a continuing charity, knowledge which still brings benefit, and righteous offspring to pray for him. (Hadith) ‘It is Allah who gives you life, then gives you death; then He will gather you together for the day of judgement.’ (surah 45.26) These verses would help to encourage a Muslim to have faith in where their loved ones are and that one day they will be rejoined, on the day of judgement. To remind them that life is a gift and only Allah can decide when some one will born and when they will die. After grieving Muslims are comforted from their belief that on the day of judgement they will be reunited with the ones they loved and lost. Muslims believe that throughout their lives they have two angels with them and watching them, keeping a record of their good and bad deeds. This book of deeds will then be handed over to Allah on judgement day. Allah will decide whether they are truly sorry for the bad they have done and if so reward them in heaven. Here is a description of Paradise and Hell found in the Qur’an, ‘On that day, there will be joyful faces of people in the garden of delights. A gushing fountain shall be there and soft couches with goblets placed before them, silk cushions and rich carpets.’ ‘On that day, there will be downcast faces of broken and worn out, burnt by scorching fire and drinking from a boiling fountain. Their only food will be bitter thorns.’ Some people don’t believe in life after death other people don’t understand and do not care whether there is life after death at all, Muslims are positive that all life belongs to Allah and one day he will return, from this belief they can take happiness with remembering that their dead friend is going on to a better place where they can be closer to Allah, and that one day they will join them. Not to care about life after death is illogical, we all know that humans die. ‘Does Man think that we shall not assemble his bones? Yes, surely, yes-We are able to restore his finger-prints.’ The parting may seen long for the people currently left behind, these people carry out family festivals each year to remember the dead and pray regularly, this keeps drawing them close to their lost ones and Allah. A Muslim also does not look at death as final. In fact, the term used for death is Intekal (crossing over to the next and eternal life). To the Muslim, death is simply the return of the soul to Him who gave it, the last stage of the journey from earth to God. Parents may request that a dying infant or one who has died be turned to face the holy city of Mecca. That way, the infant may begin the journey home to god. Muslims believe that children go straight to heaven, if a parent has lost a child some say it is their ticket to heaven and that it is a blessing in disguise, they find comfort in believing that in heaven Muhammad (peace be upon him) is sitting under a tree surrounded by children, Allah asks these children â€Å"what can I do for you know† the children then answer â€Å"bring my mum and dad.† In the Qur’an life after death is not described in a spiritual sense, rather in a physical way, they bury the dead bodies quickly before they start to decay. This is the reason why Muslims do not burn corpses or have them cremated. They believe that every one will be raised back to life again on the day of judgement (not the souls but their bodies). Life and death, therefore, are both integral parts of the Muslim way of life and their views on death have implications on how they live day to day. Death is not the end but follows on from this life in a natural way and Allah chooses the time of death for each person and will choose what happens in the afterlife.

Cancer Can Be Avoided

Being one of the longest prevailing diseases without a cure, cancer has claimed the lives of many people not only in the South Pacific but the world and has left many families destitute and traumatized. Cancer with its variety and names depending on the area of the body affected has led to an unpredictable increase in number of deaths in a society’s census affecting the population by the bulk each year. This essay will argue that cancer can be avoided and intends to list and describe ways in which it can be reduced to a minimum. The essay will unfold in two parts. Firstly it will elaborate on the causes of cancer. Then it will briefly state solutions to help combat cancer. Cancer is the result of abnormal cell growth and is caused when a normal body cell does not function properly. The cell grows and divides uncontrollably without dying out finally becoming cancerous and a tumor results and symptoms vary depending on where the cancer is situated in the body. However, the cell does not become dysfunctional on purpose instead they are the result of many unhealthy choices made by individuals, thus the intentions in the first part of this essay is to briefly give detailed explanation on causes of cancer. To begin with, research has shown that there are substances which are directly related to cancer. Substances known as carcinogens are found to provoke the cells typical function and investigations have found that exposure to these substances induce chances of getting cancer. These substances include â€Å"Tobacco, asbestos, arsenic, radiation such as gamma and x-rays, the sun, and compounds in car exhaust fumes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ † (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 2). In addition, carcinogens are practically found everywhere from cosmetics to everyday useable items, these toxins are essentially ubiquitous consequently intensifying chances of getting cancer. However, there are those individuals with bad habits such as smoking and over consume alcohol, their choices evidently lead to cancer and eventually impact their families. Furthermore, it has been proven that age is directly proportional to cancer. Older individuals are more susceptible to cancer compared to younger individuals in a society. Therefore age is vital when considering factors for the prevalence of cancer. â€Å"As we age, there is an increase in the number of cancer causing mutations in our DNA. This makes age an important risk factor for cancer. † (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 2). Viruses also play a role in causing cancer. Cancer caused by viruses is common in Pacific Island nations and the undeviating result of this problem is an increase in mortality rate and a decrease in life expectancy amongst pacific societies. According to Mr. Joe Tooma, Chief Executive Officer of the Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation, ‘in the Solomon Islands, cervical cancer is the number one cancer killer of woman†¦.. Almost all cervical cancer has been shown to be caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Several other viruses such as HIV, Epstein-Barr virus which causes cancer common amongst children and hepatitis B and C which results in lung cancer have been identified to have an association with cancer. These viruses â€Å"suppresses or weakens the immune system- inhibits the body’s ability to fight infections and increases chances of developing cancer† (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 2). In addition to this fact, according to Mr. Tooma it is predicted that ‘four out of five people all around the world will be exposed to HPV in their lifetime. ’ This is a very alarming figure and if society is not aware, the prediction may become reality. Although cancer is a possible threat to human existence, there are preventative measures that can be followed to reduce the problem. These measures include a healthy diet and lifestyle, good habits, regular checkups to clinics and vaccination. Firstly, a healthy diet and lifestyle is vital and should be considered in an attempt to avoid cancer. A balanced meal with the right nutritional value will do more than just keep an individual fit, it will also reduce chances of getting cancer â€Å"since what we eat has been linked to the disease† (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 3). Maintaining a garden is recommended as it does not only provide fresh healthy meals but at the same time it keeps an individual fit due to physical efforts put into looking after the garden. Older individuals should keep to a daily routine that involves exercise for at least thirty minutes, as they are more susceptible to cancer. However, having a garden will not be feasible for some families especially for those in urban areas who are only confined to the walls of their house or face restrictions due to tenancy policy. But, innovations such as flower pots and possibly an agreement with landlords can help solve this issue. Secondly, ridding of bad habits such as smoking and over consumption of alcohol will considerably lower the possibility of developing cancer. Studies show that â€Å"choosing not to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol significantly lowers the risks of several types of cancer- most notably lung, throat, mouth and liver cancer. † (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 3). Finally, regular checkups and vaccination is a necessary tool in avoiding and curing cancer. Victims have an opportunity to achieve remission through the use of services such as Pap smear tests, mammograms and testicular self-examinations. â€Å"†¦ research has proven that by finding cancer early at stage 1 or 2, there is a 90 percent survival rate. However, finding cancer late at stages 3 or 4 drops the survival rate to 10-20 percent†. (Fiji Cancer Society, 2007, p. 1). Purchasing of instruments to help aid in identifying damaged cells can also be a way for organization to reduce cancer rates. Instruments like colonoscope would be obliging as it would â€Å"assist in the early detection and treatment of bowel and intestinal cancers. †(Vanuatu Daily Post Newspaper, 2012, p. 1). In addition to this fact, introductions of vaccines such as the anti-cervical cancer vaccine to combat against the HPV virus that causes cervical cancer in women. There are also vaccines present that prevent viruses such as the hepatitis B or C virus from affecting its host. However, there are cases where it is difficult to give effective treatment or the cancer cannot be cured due to genetic predisposition in DNA that is inherited from parents. But that is the whole point of having a regular check up, in order to minimize damages the cancer has done to the body and through government aids, individuals with inherited genetic predisposition n their DNA could be helped by making access to medical services convenient to them. It is evident that cancer cannot be fully eradicated however; preventative measures can be taken to reduce the chances of developing cancer. The preceding measures stated in the contents of this essay can only be fulfilled when individuals are cautious of their choices and are aware of the impact their decisions will have on society, their family and most importantly themselves.

Obesity †Nutrition Essay

Fast food is something that every American knows about. Most likely you, the person reading this has had fast food before, and probably enjoyed it. Whether it may be Mcdonalds, Burger King, Taco Bell, Jack in the Box, KFC, etc. There is nothing as cheap, quick to get, and tasty as fast food. With the ever-growing population of obese Americans, people are looking for a reason and for most that reason is fast food. Now according to the CDC (centers for disease control) the definition of overweight is having a BMI (body mass index) of 25-29. 9 and the BMI for an obese person is 30 or higher. Could it be that fast food is causing 78 million Americans 20 years or older to be obese, or that 17% of all children and teens in the US are over weight because of it? I think not. Sure, fast food may not be the healthiest choice for you, but seriously, no one is forcing you to eat that cheeseburger and no one is forcing you to drink that soda. You see fast food is not the problem, the decision making of the obese American population is. Now just so we’re clear I have nothing against obese people and there is a big difference between a little chunky, which is okay and obese. Now just so your aware of the obesity problem here in America, here’s some cold hard facts about obesity. Here in the US more than 35% of adults are considered obese, that’s more than 78 million people across the country that are obese. Seventeen percent of children and young adults are obese, which is triple the rate of a generation ago. Studies have shown that obesity gives you a greater chance of getting type2 diabetes and even cancer. If you are wondering why there are so many obese people in America today just ask your self a few simple questions. Would you rather go for a nice evening jog or stay home and watch your favorite TV show? Would you rather eat a salad or something not as healthy like a burger or pizza? And finally would you rather go to the gym or hang out with friends? If I had to guess I’d say most of you would rather hang out with friends, eat junk food, and watch your favorite TV show. You see most people have the time to work out and eat right they just choose not to and just like every choice made in life it comes with it’s benefits and consequences. You don’t have to pay for a gym member ship just walk up some steps or play catch with your kids or take a walk at the park, anything is obviously better than nothing. Now researchers will argue against my claims, and that’s understandable. They’ll mention that 33 percent of children and adolescents in the U. S. consume fast food on a typical day; they’ll also state that on average adolescents will visit a fast food restaurant twice a week. Well all I have to say to that is whose fault is that? How are these kids buying the fast food? With their parent’s money of course. Why can’t the parents make them something healthy and control what there kids eat instead of giving them money to eat fast food? It’s the parent’s fault that the kids are eating fast food so often. Fast food isn’t going to make you obese unless you eat it most of the time. If you eat it occasionally but you also eat your fruits and vegetables you’ll be fine. It is crazy to know that in the U. S. 49% of money spent on food is spent away from home. Which means people are choosing to buy food from restaurants and other places rather than go to the grocery store and cook at home. That percentage is always increasing due to the fact that people now a days are looking for more convenient ways of getting there food. If your wondering just how much money is being spent on quick service restaurants, in 2011 quick service restaurants were expected to gain 168 billion dollars, 3% more than 2010. If people would just spend half the amount of money that they usually spend on fast food and cook a nice healthy meal instead there would be no problem with fast food. Once again the decisions of the American people are to blame. Hit the gym and help yourself get slim. Studies have shown that physical activity plays a big role in loosing weight but of course you knew that, its common sense. But what many people don’t know is that according to the CDC (center for disease control) fewer than 2 out of 10 Americans and less than 30 percent of adults get the recommended level of exercise. Also that more than 25% of U. S. adults do not devote any time to physical activity, the worst states being Louisiana, Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. It is very intriguing that correlations have shown that those states with the least amount of exercise have the most health problems. Type2 diabetes is mostly triggered by obesity, and in 1980 5. 5 million adults had it; now approximately 25. 6 million adults have type2 diabetes. The ever so increasing percentage of obesity and decreasing percentage in physical activity is definitely to blame. An interesting fact is that by loosing weight and getting from overweight to normal you can save on average $1400 a year on medication. If you don’t have time to hit the gym, there are a few tips that can help you get fit. First don’t drink soda; on average if you drink a soda can a day you’ll gain 15 pounds in a year, that is if you don’t work out of course. Take the stairs or walk around the block, a few extra steps could be the difference in burning some extra calories, and finally anything is better than nothing, curl some soup cans or do some crunches while watching TV. Any of those things can help you with your obesity, then you wont have to blame it on fast food. Fast food companies are now making a bigger push to serve healthier items in their stores, but it is up to the customers to get them otherwise it is all for nothing. McDonalds is taking the biggest step with there new items like the all fruit smoothies, apple slices, salads, and there brochures that show you there below 400,300,200, and 100 calorie items. Jack in the box is jumping on board as well with their 3 choices of salads, and serving grilled chicken instead of fried in there sandwiches. These fast food chains are realizing that healthy is the new way to go but yet the majority of people in America aren’t. We need to watch what we eat, eat healthier brown rice or bread instead of white, more fruits and veggies and less burgers, next time you go to mcdonalds get a salad instead of a Big Mac it might change your life. In conclusion the fast food industry is not to blame for Obesity in the United States of America. They’re taking steps in the right direction and the people of America should too. We need to start exercising more and getting active because that is the true reason for the increasing obesity. Make better decisions in your life style, choose a healthy one and like I said get a salad next time you go to McDonalds. – http://www. getamericafit. org/statistics-obesity-in-america. html – http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2012/08/14/obesity-rate-by-state_n_1774356. html.

The Concept of Individuals Responsibility To other Members of Their Essay

The Concept of Individuals Responsibility To other Members of Their Community by Peter Singer - Essay Example By taking a look at the donations from such an angle these countries generosity can be said to take a drastic dive when compared to their other expenses. One could say that these governments care more about their transport system for example than they do about the millions of lives that they could affect with such money (Singer). However, in realistic terms especially from an economic point of view, it is necessary that a government invests in projects that will bring back financial returns in a bid to provide a better stable economy from which they can operate from. Without these investments, they would not be able to donate any money to the causes that they provide funding for. Taking a look at the stance brought about by Singer and the economic defense of such actions by the governments it can be said that two clear sides emerge from this argument with each supporting the opposing sides. A good strategy to determine whether Singer was right in his evaluation of an individualâ€⠄¢s responsibility to other members of their community as well as a government’s responsibility to society is by studying the underlying factors that would more or less govern the potential results of what certain actions may bring. This can be done by setting a choice of two potential paths that a society can take and the results that these two paths are most likely to yield. By doing this, it can be said that the path that leads to the best results will be the better option. Taking a look at the basis of the argument taken by Singer it can be said that from an overall perspective he has a good point and if his plan was to be placed perfectly into action there could be a high chance of success should everyone play their part. This is to say that the effect should take place from the grassroots and make its way up to the top echelons of government. This would mean that a regular individual would begin to take more interest in the plight of refugees and ensuring that they are doing everything in their power to improve their conditions. This would include donating more money to affiliated organizations, taking a political interest in the policies as well as changing their lifestyle to a more giving and generous one (Singer). The government on the other hand would divert more of their funds towards helping these causes and concentrate more on the wellbeing of these individuals rather than the other projects they have lined up (Singer). The government in this case would take the stance that the improvement of human life is more important than other issues. If this was to happen exactly as stated there could be a chance that causes such as the wellbeing of refugees will get the attention it deserves and as a result their plight may be significantly reduce as more people take action on the matter. However, this would need the support and co operation of all the people and bodies involved which would also include a somewhat drastic in some change in mindset wh ich is something that would not happen overnight. People would need to be willing to change their ways and adopt a giving policy that may have diminished over the years thanks to the promotion of capitalist values. The changes entailed could also bring about negative aspects as well as positive ones, which is something that should be taken into consideration. As much as helping others and ensuring tha

Miscommunication in Aviaition Safety Research Paper

Miscommunication in Aviaition Safety - Research Paper Example Consequently, miscommunication among these individuals may result in grave consequences such as a fatal crash or accident. Of all aviation accidents that have been reported, over 70% points to miscommunication as a significant contributor to the fatal aviation crashes. Hence, miscommunication in the form of improper English, language errors, as well as inefficient cockpit communication is among the leading causes of fatal aviation accidents. Language problem is the major cause of airspace accidents due to crew communication and coordination. Pilots operate huge and complicated planes in busy and large terminals, and thus, they need help from the ground including information and support on landing and taking off provided by the air-traffic control (ATC). Therefore, communication between ATC and pilots should be clear, efficient, and proper because any mishap in communication can lead to a fatal crash as seen in the case of two Boeing 747 crashing into each other. Evidence shows that improper English and communication interference were the major cause of the fatal crash on March 27, 1977 that injured 61 and killed 583 people (Tajima 454). The captain notified the controller that they were at a takeoff position, and since this statement has double meaning, the controller misinterpreted it. The controller thought that the captain meant they were waiting for runway clearance, but not in motion, but sadly, the plane was alrea dy in motion making a run on the runway. Further instructions given to the captain to standby did not reach him due to radio transmission interruption. What followed was a fatal crash between KLM 4805 and PAA airplane, which was still on the runway when KLM 4805 was taking off. According to Tajima, this was a case of improper English whereby the captain’s native language Dutch influenced unconscious code-mixing that interfered with English phrase resulting in inefficient communication to the ATC (456). Apart from pilot and ATC

Argumental essay on Virginia Woolf Shakespeares Sister

Argumental on Virginia Woolf Shakespeares Sister - Essay Example Woolf points out that the basis of cultural identity and social expectations is what depicts one’s genius and outcome, as opposed to the ability to develop as an individual independently shows the main identity which one holds. The first way in which Woolf shows the difference in social status and identity as the outcome is through the definition of Judith as Shakespeare’s sister [argument by definition]. The concept is one which is related to the definition of what it means to be a woman. Woolf shows how Shakespeare easily could have gone into social circles, schooling and other areas because of the time frame and what had occurred. Woolf states: â€Å"Meanwhile his extraordinary gifted sister, let us suppose, remained at home. She was adventurous, as imaginative, as agog to see the world as he was. But she was not sent to school. She had no chance of learning grammar and logic, let alone of reading Horace and Virgil† (Woolf, 56). This excerpt defines how the di fference between men and women in the same family is dependent on social status. The identity comes from the definition of what it means to be a woman within society and how this is what sets one’s destiny. The definition of Shakespeare as well as his sister both shows how the very definition of gender is what creates the alternatives for the destiny which each reaches. The second concept which is used by Woolf is the comparison of Judith and Shakespeare [comparison]. The comparison which is made is one which is defined by the gender difference which offers opportunity. The concept is based first on how Shakespeare is the â€Å"apple of her father’s eye† (56) because of his theater and acting skills. This allowed him to walk through open doors which then sets his career in pace for writing some of the best features in theater. However, when comparing this to Judith, that had the same amount of talent, a different outcome was created. â€Å"She stood at the stag e door; she wanted to act, she said. Men laughed in her face. The manager – a fat, looselipped man – guaffawed. He bellowed something about poodles dancing and women acting – no woman, he said, could possibly be an actress† (Woolf, 57). Both genders are noted to have the same upbringing and opportunity; however, the lack of schooling and the definition of gender stop Judith from being able to go forward. However, there is a comparison between the two and what opportunities should be available. The comparison is one which becomes based on gender as women don’t have the ability to act while men have open doors to acting. This is another example of the differences in gender and how it leads to a change in identity and expectations of what should happen to the individual during their life time because of social standards. Opportunities and how this changes destiny is furthered with the expectations that are given to Judith’s life because of her g ender. [example] The example is one which shows how the changes in destiny and life path are altered according to gender. Shakespeare is immediately able to go to London to study while Judith is expected to be married and to not oppose her position in life. â€Å"But then her parents came home and told her to mend the stockings and mind the stew and not moon about with books and papers†¦. She cried out that marriage was hateful to her, and for that she was severely beaten by her father† (Woolf, 57). Woolf sets the example of what it means to be a woman and

Practicum nursing service administration 3 Essay

Practicum nursing service administration 3 - Essay Example The standards includes maintenance of ethical standards, enhancing education, evidence based practice and research, enhancing environmental health, communication, leadership, collaboration, resource utilization, professional practice evaluation and enhancing quality performance. The paper outlines a reflection of the above stipulated standards. The code of ethics for nurses acts as a guide ensuring that nurses carries out their responsibilities in a manner that is consistent with the quality and ethical obligations of the profession. These obligations are stipulated in American Nursing Association. The standards of professional performance by ANA describes the behavioral competency in the role of the profession in activities that commensurate with quality while providing care; education; and appraisal of performance among many others. It promotes nursing profession by advocating for high level or standard practices ensuring that the rights of nurses are catered for at the work place. Nurses have an obligation to integrate ethical conducts in the different facets of their practices. Nurses in the profession have a mandate to not only to establish and maintain professional therapeutic, patients and nurse relationship but also discharge health care in such a way that the patient’s dignity, autonomy and rights are uphel d. They are also required to make ethical decisions while at work; report cases that are incompetent and illegal; and maintain and ensure patients on confidentiality within the boundaries of regulations and legal requirements. It is a nurse’s responsibility of being accountable for their nursing practices and evaluating ideal and correct task delegation mechanisms. These tasks ought to be consistent with their duties to provide appropriate care for the patients as per the required standards. The ethical code of conduct also stipulates that each nurse has an obligation of upholding the safety and integrity of their patient. Moreover,

Offer & Acceptance Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Offer & Acceptance - Article Example McKendrick E. (2007) defines offer as offer is an expression of willingness to enter in to contract on certain terms. It must be made with the intention that it will become binding upon acceptance. There must be no further negotiations or discussions required [Storer v Manchester City Council,1 Gibson v Manchester City Council2]. In Storer the Court of Appeal establish that there was a binding contract. Here the fact that the ABC noticed in newsletter that will pay '500 to anyone who runs in and complete at least five races sponsored by the British Distance Running Association. According to Partridge v Crittenden3 normally advertisement is an invitation to treat for a bilateral contract but here ABC put notice in its newsletter. However, in Carlill v Carbolic Smock Ball Company4 decided that advertisement was a unilateral offer. It also held that advertisement was not an invitation to treat but was an offer to the whole world and that a contract was made with those persons who perfor med the condition 'on the faith of the advertisement'. In Bowerman v ABTA5 it is likely that a court would find that the advertisement was an offer. So it can be assumed that ABC made a valid offer. Now it needs to consider whether the offer has been accepted or not by Fast Fred, Swift Sally and Heavy Harry. McKendrick E. (2007) defines acceptance that an acceptance is an unqualified expression of assent to the terms proposed by the offeror. An offer is effective when it is communicated to the offeree. Proof of an offer to enter in to legal relations upon definite terms must be followed by the production of evidence from which the courts may infer an intention by the offeree to accept that offer. The acceptance can be made by words or by conduct. However, the communication of the acceptance is important. The general rule is that an acceptance must be communicated to the offeror. This is strict requirement. It must actually be brought to the notice of the offeror. It is for the offeree to ensure that communication has been made Powell v Lee. The general rule is that acceptance is not effective until it is communicated to the offeror and the acceptance cannot be made through sile nce. In Felthouse v Bindley6 the offeror cannot waive communication if that would be to the detriment of the offeree. In Brogden v Metropolitan Railway Company7, where the offeree accepted the offer by performance. Acceptance occurs when the offeree's words or conduct give rise to objective inference that the offeree assents to the offeree's terms. It is a vital question whether Emilio's initiatives has been treated as specific performance. The first involves Fast Fred who had run in four BDRA races. Acceptance required to complete at least five races. He voted against the Fat Slob party and he immediately cancelled his entry in the remaining BDRA races for the year. So no contract has been formed between the ABC and Fast Fred. McKendrick E. (2005) said that to be a valid acceptance two things must be considered these are the facts of acceptance and Communication of acceptance. However, if courts consider Brogden v Metropolitan Railway Company then performance is enough to form a contract. Swift Sally wanted to comply the condition and had run in the three BDRA races. Here she accepted the off

Sports, Entertainment and Media after the 2nd World War Essay

Sports, Entertainment and Media after the 2nd World War - Essay Example By associating physicality with masculinity, certain sports/activities are labeled as either being masculine or feminine, depending upon the physical nature of the activity. Sports in which the use of body is forceful, dominating or aggressive, are considered fit for males because they are indicators of male power and thus, a definitive expression of physicality. But according to Lisa McDermott, physicality is suggested to be the complex interplay of the body perception, the agency and self-perception and is related to the qualitative understanding the lived-body as experienced and understood by the women when they are involved in sports or physical activities. To explore the meaning and significance the women derive from experiencing their bodies/themselves through these activities and the effects of these experiences greatly helps in shaping their understanding of their physicality beyond that of appearance in particular. By doing so she tries to help us understand the physical and social effect these experiences have on women in identifying themselves. In reference to the research carried out by Lisa McDermott; "Towards Understanding of Physicality, Within the Context of Women's Physically Active and Sporting Lives," this paper will examine female physicality in relation to sports and my chosen game; "Netball." It will discuss how society and media projects and labels certain sports only for males and how the females are subjected to unequal status as being physically weak. The paper will also look into the gender relations based on social and cultural norms. The last part will assess, to which extent; taking part in physical sport has changed the concept of female physicality, subjectivity and gender relations in relation to the existing social norms. Sports and gender Sports in the minds of many, is considered a "gendered" activity which reinforces male power. The stereotyping of the so called "biological difference" between males and females in the past w as used as the basis of exclusion of females from sport. Within the literature of sport sociology, we often find physicality linked with power related to physical power and masculinity. Even though the postmodern society holds out the likelihood of a post-gender society, gender as a system signifying differential values still exists (Firat, 1994) with sport such as rugby, football, ice hockey or boxing, and women still looked at as wives and mothers. An example in this respect is golf, where mothers on golf courses are more likely to be labeled deviant and asked to account for the care of their families than fathers on golf courses (West, Candace and Don H. Zimmerman, 1987). Although there are other sports which reflect physical strength and women are actively participate in them, but I'll discuss netball here in relation to physicality. Netball as a sport, which was earlier cited as only for females, entered a new era after the 70s when it began to be restructured into a profession ally administrated sporting organization and better funding.

Causation and Intervening Acts in Criminal Law Essay Example for Free

Causation and Intervening Acts in Criminal Law Essay According to Robin J.A. in Malette v Shulman[1], â€Å"the right of self-determination which underlies the doctrine of informed consent also obviously encompasses the right to refuse medical treatment. A competent adult is generally entitled to reject a specific treatment or all treatment, or to select an alternate form of treatment, even if the decision may entail risks as serious as death†¦The doctrine of informed consent is plainly intended to ensure the freedom of individuals to make choices concerning their medical care. For this freedom to be meaningful, people must have the right to make choices that accord with their own values regardless of how unwise or foolish those choices may appear to others.†[2] R v Blaue[3], a famous causation case in criminal law, brings to foreground a thought-provoking debate about whether an individual’s religious beliefs and other psychological values could be included in the ‘thin skull’ rule and whether the refusal to take lifesaving medical treatment breaks the chain of causation that exists between the defendant’s wrongdoing and the purported outcome of that wrongdoing. The facts of the case are as follows Blaue, the defendant, stabbed a woman numerous times after she refused to have sexual intercourse with him. She was a Jehovah’s Witness and was therefore not in favour of blood transfusions. After the stabbing, she was taken to a hospital and was told that she urgently needed to have a blood transfusion, without which she would die. Owing to her religious beliefs, she refused to consent with the suggested treatment. As a result, she died in the hospital. While giving the judgment, Lawton L.J. stated that â€Å"those who use violence on other people must take their victims as they find them.†[4] This, according to him, not only includes victims’ physical characteristics, but also their emotional, psychological and spiritual values and beliefs. This decision has proved to be extremely controversial and gives rise to various debates. Most understand the rationale behind the court’s judgment and agree that the defendant is , as a matter of fact, criminally liable for causing the injury. After all, the victim was at the receiving end of several stabbings, imposed by the defendant, who clearly had an intention of causing serious bodily harm, if not death. However, some feel that the death was the result of the victim’s refusal to carry out the blood transfusion. They feel that the defendant should not be responsible for the unusual, irrational and unjustified religious beliefs of the victim. In addition, the defendant could not have possibly foreseen her backing out of receiving medical treatment in the hospital. The Blaue case creates many doubts about the doctrine of causation in criminal law. Was Blaue responsible for the victim’s death or was it an act of the victim, since it was her decision to refuse a blood transfusion? If we conclude that Blaue is indeed responsible for her death, another question comes to mind: Why is the victim not responsible for her own death? First and foremost, it is a fact that the victim sustained injuries due to numerous stabbings and it was Blaue who had inflicted them upon her. Her not taking any steps to save herself did not instigate her death. Secondly, there is an application of the ‘thin skull’ rule in this case. An important principle of the law of causation is that defendants must ‘take their victims as they find them.’ This means that if a defendant pushes someone and because they have a thin skull, they crack their head and die, the defendant will be liable for causing their death. The Court of Appeal in Blaue indicated that the decision could be seen as a ‘thin skull’ example. It was established that the ‘thin skull’ rule goes beyond the physical characteristics of individuals, also including a person’s moral and religious beliefs. Thirdly, the victim’s decision to not undergo blood transfusion, which would have clearly saved her life, was based on profound religious views and hence, did not constitute a novus actus interveniens. That is, it was not an intervening act. Nevertheless, the judgment has been critisised on various grounds. Why was the vict im’s decision to refuse medical treatment seen as a subsisting condition rather than an intervening cause? Would it have been the same if the refusal was due to a fear of needles or the fact that she could not bear the pain and thought dying was the only way to end the agony? A decision steered by religious beliefs is a moral choice, that is, a free decision. Why should the defendant endure the responsibility if the victim makes a free choice to kill herself any more than he should if, weakened by the injury, the victim took a controversial choice to end her life with dignity rather than enduring pain and life-long humiliation? Thus, to understand the Blaue case, we not only need to take into account causation in criminal law, but also the two doctrines which apply to the concept of proximate causation; the ‘thin skull’ rule and the principle of novus actus interveniens. Causation In criminal law, individuals that are guilty of a crime are penalised for the harm they cause if both the physical and the mental element of committing an offence is present. There must be a valid connection between an individual’s conduct and the result alleged to constitute an offence. The causation requirement attaches criminal responsibility to those individuals whose conduct is sufficient enough to bring about serious bodily injury or death. In Hallett[5], the accused assaulted a man and left him on a beach. Over the next few hours, the man drowned. The court concluded that Hallett’s contribution to his death was more than minimal to hold him responsible for it. However, in Blaue, the defendant was found to be the substantial and operating cause of the woman’s death. That is, his stabbings is why she was admitted to a hospital in the first place. ‘Thin skull’ rule The defendant must take the victim as he finds him or her and this means ‘the whole man and not just the physical man.’ This rule applies irrespective of whether the defendant is aware of the condition in the victim. On one hand, there are instances where the victim suffers from a pre-existing condition which renders him or her more vulnerable to injuries. On the other hand, there are cases where the victim does not take medical treatment to heal wounds and suffers serious harm as a result. A defendant cannot escape liability for a victim’s death as a result of an abnormality pres ent in the victim or an internal, subsisting belief of the victim. It is his fault that he caused harm in the first place. In R v Hayward[6], a man chased his wife into the street shouting threats and kicked her. She collapsed and died from an unusual thyroid condition which made her susceptible to physical exertion and fear. He was convicted of manslaughter because he aggravated her pre-existing condition by physically assaulting her. This case is a good example of the ‘thin skull’ rule applying to the physical characteristics of an individual. The fact that he could not possibly foresee her dying is not an excuse. However, can a victims religious beliefs constitute a thin skull? With reference to Blaue, according to Hart and Honorà ©: â€Å"The question is not whether it is reasonable to believe that blood transfusion is wrong, but whether a person whose life is in danger can reasonably be expected to abandon a firmly held religious belief. The answer must be surely no.†[7] Religious beliefs and convictions are an internal cha racteristic of individuals, which is deeply rooted in their way of thinking and life. It is intrinsic to every person. Hence, people cannot be held legally accountable for possessing such sentiments. Novus Actus Interveniens The general principle is that an intervention by a third party will break the chain of causation if it is ‘free, deliberate and informed.’ In R v Kennedy[8], Kennedy prepared a syringe for the victim, who injected himself and died due to an overdose. Kennedy was convicted of unlawful manslaughter. The act of the victim, in injecting himself with the drug, was an intentional, free, deliberate and an informed action. Thus, the drug dealer is not guilty of unlawful manslaughter. In contrast, in R v Dear[9], the defendant slashed the victim repeatedly with a knife. The victim died two days later. The defendant appealed against his conviction for murder, arguing that the chain of causation had been broken because the victim had committed suicide either by reopening his wounds or because he had failed to take steps to stop the blood flow after the wounds had reopened them selves. The court dismissed the appeal and held that the real question was whether the injuries inflicted by the defendant were a substantial and operating cause of the death. The victims death resulted from excessive bleeding from the artery, which was triggered by the defendant when he attacked the victim. In Blaue, the refusal to get treatment does not break the chain of causation, despite the fact that it was informed and deliberate, because having such a belief is involuntary and requisite. According to Hart and Honorà ©, â€Å"the question to be decided is whether the decision to refuse treatment is not merely deliberate and informed but also a free one. In view of the high value attached in our society to the matters of conscience, the victim, though free to accept any belief she wished, is not thereafter free to abandon her chosen belief merely because she finds herself in a situation in which her life may otherwise be in danger. So it was not her free act to refuse a transfusion.†[10] It was reasonably foreseeable that a Jehovah’s Witness would refuse a blood transfusion. The victim had no choice due to her religion. It was not a free decision because, in a way, she was bound by it. It could be said that she simply let the wound take its natural course. Moreover, the death was caused due to the bleeding arising from the penetration of the lungs, which was brought about by the stabbings. The substantial and operating cause test does not take into account a victim’s distinct characteristic. So long as victim died of internal bleeding due to the wound administered by Blaue, we need not ask further questions. However, if the principle of ‘taking your victims as you find them, including their beliefs’ is applied to more cases, it would have varying results. Let’s assume that X assaults Y. Y ends up committing suicide because she is mentally unstable or because she hopes to get X behind bars. Another example could be that X shoots Y on his left leg. Y could go to the hospital but decides to remove the bullet by himself. Unable to do so and still refusing medical treatment, he dies. Should X ‘take’ Y’s unstable, vengeful or negligent behaviour? Is that justified or is it unfair? [ 1 ]. Malette v Shulman [1991] 2 Med LR 162. [ 2 ]. Jerome Edmund Bickenback, Canadian cases in the philosophy of law, 4th edition, at 160 to 161. [ 3 ]. R v Blaue [1975] 1 WLR 1411. [ 4 ]. Michael T. Molan, Sourcebook on Criminal Law, 2nd edition, at 67. [ 5 ]. Hallett [1969] SASR 141. [ 6 ]. R v Hayward (1908) 21 Cox 692. [ 7 ]. Denis Klimchuk, Causation, Thin Skulls and Equality (1998) at pg. 126. [ 8 ]. R v Kennedy [2007] UKHL 38. [ 9 ]. R v Dear [1996] Crim LR 595. [ 10 ]. Alan Norrie, Crime, Reason and History: A Critical Introduction to Criminal Law, at pg. 143.

To Study Promotional Mix Of Coca Cola Products Marketing Essay

To Study Promotional Mix Of Coca Cola Products Marketing Essay Coca-Cola is the most recognised brand name in the world with 94 per cent recognition. This profile has spread with increasing rapidity in recent years as evidenced for example in China, where Coca-Cola became the most recognised trademark in the late 1990s. Today you can buy a Coke almost anywhere from Beijing to Buenos Aires, from Moscow to Mexico City. The Coca-Cola Company sells half of all soft drinks consumed throughout the world. Coca Cola Great Britain 5 Image 1 The Mission Statement of the Coca Cola Company Their mission statement is to maximize shareholder value over time. In order to achieve this mission, they must create value for all the constraints they serve, including their consumers, customers, bottlers, and communities. The Coca Cola Company creates value by executing comprehensive business strategy guided by six key beliefs: 1. Consumer demand drives everything we do. 2. Brand Coca Cola is our core business 3. We will serve consumers, broad selection of the non-alcoholic ready-to-drink beverages they want to drink through out the day. 4. We will be the best marketers in the globe. 5. We will think and act locally. 6. We will lead as a model corporate citizen. The ultimate objectives of our business strategy are to increase volume, expand our share of worldwide nonalcoholic ready to drink beverages sales, maximize our longterm cash flows, and create economic value added by improving economic profit. The Coca Cola system has more than 16 million customers around the world that sells or serves our products directly to consumers. We keenly focus on enhancing value for these customers and helping them grow their beverage businesses. We strive to understand each customers business and needs, whether that customer is a sophisticated retailer in a developed market a kiosk owner in an emerging market. There are nearly 6 million people in the world who are potential consumers of our companys product. Ultimately, our success in achieving our mission depends on our ability to satisfy more of their beverage consumption demands and our ability to add value for customers. We achieve this when we place the right products in the right markets at the right time. COCA COLA INTERNATIONAL HISTORY Coca-Cola Enterprises, established in 1986. Each of its franchises has a strong heritage in the traditions of coca cola that is the foundation for this Company. The coca cola Company traces its beginning to 1886, when an Atlanta pharmacist, Dr. John Pemberton , began to produce Coca-Cola syrup for sale in fountain drinks. However the bottling business began in 1899 when two Chattanooga businessmen, Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead , secured the exclusive rights to bottle and sell Coca-Cola for most of the United States from The Coca-Cola Company. The Coca-Cola bottling system continued to operate as independent, local businesses until the early 1980s when bottling franchises began to consolidate. In 1986, The Coca-Cola Company merged some of its company-owned operations with two large ownership groups that were for sale, the John T. Lupton franchises and BCI Holding Corporations bottling holdings, to form Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. The Company offered its stock to the public on November 21, 1986, at a split-adjusted price of $5.50 a share. On an annual basis, total unit case sales were 880,000 in 1986. In December 1991, a merger between Coca-Cola Enterprises and the Johnston Coca-Cola Bottling Group, Inc. (Johnston) created a larger, stronger Company, again helping accelerate bottler consolidation. As part of the merger, the senior management team of Johnston assumed responsibility for managing the Company, and began a dramatic, successful restructuring in 1992.Unit case sales had climbed to 1.4 billion, and total revenues were $5 billion. Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink sold in stores, restaurants, and vending machines in more than 200 countries.[1] It is produced by The Coca-Cola Company of Atlanta, Georgia, and is often referred to simply as Coke (a registered trademark of The Coca-Cola Company in the United States since March 27, 1944). Originally intended as a patent medicine when it was invented in the late 19th century by John Pemberton, Coca-Cola was bought out by businessman Asa Griggs Candler, whose marketing tactics led Coke to its dominance of the world soft-drink market throughout the 20th century. The company produces concentrate, which is then sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold territorially exclusive contracts with the company, produce finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. The bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores and vending machines. Such bottlers include Coca-Cola Enterprises, which is the largest single Coca-Cola bottler in North America and western Europe. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains to major restaurants and food service distributors. The Coca-Cola Company has, on occasion, introduced other cola drinks under the Coke brand name. The most common of these is Diet Coke, with others including Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola, Diet Coke Caffeine-Free, Coca-Cola Cherry, Coca-Cola Zero, Coca-Cola Vanilla, and special versions with lemon, lime or coffee. Based on Interbrands best global brand 2011, Coca-Cola was the worlds most valuable brand. https://sites.google.com/site/engineeringmbaproject/mba-project-report-on-marketing-strategies-of-coca-cola http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola Acquisitions The company has a long list of acquisition history. Coca-Cola took over Minute Maid in 1960, the Indian cola brand thums Up in 1993, and Barqs in 1995. In 2001, it took over the Odwalla brand of fruit juices, smoothies and bars for $181  million. In 2007, it acquired Fuze Beverage from founder Lance Collins and Castanea Partners for an estimated $250  million. The companys 2009 bid to buy a Chinese juice maker ended when China rejected its $2.4  billion bid for the Huiyuan Juice Group on the grounds that it would be a virtual monopoly. Nationalism was also thought to be a reason for aborting the deal. In 1982, coca cola made its only non-beverage acquisition, when it purchased Columbia Pictures for $692 million. It sold the movie studio to Sony for $1.5 billion in 1989. Coca-Cola Brands n UK CocaCola Diet Coke Coke Zero Powerade Powerade Zero Powerade Energy Glaceau Schweppes Schweppes Water Schweppes Mixers Schweppes Lemonade Schweppes Cordials Schweppes Slimline Sprite Sprite Zero Fanta Fanta Zero Dr Pepper Dr Pepper Zero Lilt Lilt Zero Oasis Oasis Light 5 Alive Kia Ora Kia Ora No Added Sugar Relentless Relentless Sugar Free Competitors Direct Competitor Comparison KO DPS NSRGY PEP Industry Market Cap: 170.12b 9.33b 204.90b 108.57b 1.29b Employees: 146,200 19,000 328,000 297,000 3.53k Qtrly Rev Growth (yoy): 0.01 -0.00 0.08 -0.05 0.14 Revenue (ttm): 47.60b 5.97b 93.06b 65.70b 1.60b Gross Margin (ttm): 0.60 0.58 0.47 0.52 0.41 EBITDA (ttm): 13.01b 1.31b 17.32b 12.59b 201.40m Operating Margin (ttm): 0.23 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.11 Net Income (ttm): 8.80b 625.00m 10.61b 5.92b N/A EPS (ttm): 1.91 2.92 3.32 3.76 0.50 P/E (ttm): 19.83 15.33 19.39 18.69 22.62 PEG (5 yr expected): 2.28 2.07 3.34 4.02 1.59 P/S (ttm): 3.52 1.53 2.16 1.63 1.42 DPS = Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Inc. NSRGY = Nestl PEP = Pepsico, Inc. Industry = Beverages Soft Drinks Nonalcoholic Beverage Makers Ranked by Beverage Sales Company Symbol Price Change Market Cap P/E The Coca-Cola Company KO 37.93 0.01 170.12b 19.83 Pepsico, Inc. PEP 70.19 0.01 108.57b 18.69 Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Inc. DPS 44.81 0.02 9.33b 15.33 Groupe Danone Water Division Private Nestlà © Waters Private ITO EN, LTD. Private Red Bull GmbH Private Cott Corporation COT 8.71 0.01 822.98m 24.47 Britvic Plc BTVCY 11.64 0.00 1.41b 14.62 Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc. Private Nestl NSRGY 64.43 0.02 204.90b 19.39 Diageo plc DEO 120.69 0.02 75.28b 24.27 Heineken NV HINKY 32.14 0.02 36.96b 17.83 SABMiller plc SBMRY 45.52 0.08 72.21b 17.26 Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV BUD 86.98 0.02 139.16b 19.17 Suntory International Corp. COMPETATIVE ADVANTAGE OF COCA COLA Competitive advantage than a company has over the rivals by providing better customer satisfaction, by means of cost, benefits or due the services. STRONG BRAND NAME: Coca cola has developed a very strong brand by its strategies that it has followed during so many years and as a result has came up with a global brand name that is almost known by 90% of the global population. STRONG MARKETING STRATEGIE: Coca cola concentrates on the customer in whatever they do. And it focuses on all the age group of people that is children, youngsters and matured customers and come with marketing strategies that  influence on all the targeted consumers. NEW PRODUCT INNOVATIONS: With time to time Coca cola comes with new product innovation that attracts it customer towards itself again and again. These days people are becoming more and more health conscious, so coca cola has came up with non carbonate drinks and fruit juice products for example Diet coke, juices etc. BOTTELING SYSTEM: Bottling system is one of the most significant advantages that the company enjoys, among its other competitors and that allows infinite growth all over the the world. Coca cola has given rights to the bottlers companies around the globe to make and sell its products. Marketing strategy Marketing involves getting the right product to the right place, at the right time, at the right price and with the most suitable promotional activity. Coca-Cola has always been successful in creating the most appropriate marketing mix. Since the beginning, coca cola has built its business using a universal strategy based on three timeless principles: Acceptability- through effective marketing, the company ensurs that coca cola brands are an integral part of consumers daily lives, making coca cola the preferred beverage everywhere Affordability- Coca-Cola guarantees that it offers the best price in terms of value for money Availability Making sure that Coca-Cola brands are available anywhere, where people want refreshment. Coca-Cola has created well organized and extensive global distribution network guaranteeing the ubiquity of its products. (Ubiquity means ability to appear to be present everywhere at once.) Its approach is founded on the belief that coca cola must try to quench the thirst of everyone in the world -of all 5.6 billion people The Company operates a worldwide franchise system supplying syrups and concentrates to over 1,200 bottling operations, (there are more than 350 in the US alone) which thus include local companies and suppliers in the 200 countries in which coca cola is sold. The bottling companies distribute the worlds favourite brand using the most sophisticated technology and distribution networks that is available. The Company supports its international bottler network with sophisticated marketing programs seeking to guarantee that the companys brands are available where anyone is seeking refreshment. Coca Colas bottling system is the largest and most widespread production and distribution network in the globe. Pricing Strategy Coca cola has a high market share, competitor pressure has forced customer sensitivity to price to be fairly high, sales volume is of course high and profit margin is fairly low as the Coca-Cola products are fast moving consumer goods. This points to penetration strategy. Penetration pricing means the setting of lower rather than high prices to achieve potentially dominant share in the market. This can only be done when the demand for the product is believed to be highly flexible, basically demand is price-sensitive and either a new consumers will be involved, or existing consumers will buy more of the product because of a low price. A good penetration strategy may lead to large amount of sales and large share in the market. The strategy may also promote complimentary products. The main product may be priced low to attract sales, customers are then sold accessories. This strategy will work nicely in promoting re-use of Coca-Cola packaging via a beverage holder of vessel which is purchased separately and refilled. The potential disadvantage of bringing in this strategy is the likelihood of competitors doing the same by reducing their prices, therefore damaging any advantage of the reduced price. Price Penetration is most appropriate in industries where standardization is important. The product that achieves high market penetration often becomes the industry standard, in regards to the new Coca-Cola beverage vessel, it is trying to create a standardization of how consumers use the beverage container. Coca-Cola are likely to receive stiff competition soon after introduction of the product, although the product that achieves high market penetration often becomes the industry standard and other products, even superior products, become marginalized. Standards carry heavy momentum. Global branding The ability to engage in global branding is a key advantage to any large company.   Coca-Cola is fortunate in that it possesses a number of instantly recognisable icons which go beyond the familiar taste of its product. In particular the Company benefits from its registered trade mark, the characteristic classic shapes of its bottles and the highly familiar red and white Coca-Cola can No story of Coca-Cola would be complete without the Coca-Cola glass bottle. The design for the bottle was created in the early 1900s when the bottlers of Coca-Cola faced constant threat of imitation of both product and packaging. We need a Coca-Cola bottle which a person will recognise as a Coca-Cola bottle even if he feels it in the dark. The bottle should be so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was. (The Coca-Cola bottle design brief in 1915.) Today the glass bottle is seen as an icon. An icon is a symbol or image which directly refers to a specific entity or moment. Acclaimed as one of the most famous packages, the Coca-Cola glass bottle was re-launched in 1997 in a unique new format for Britain at The Coca-Cola Bottle exhibition at Londons Design Museum. Coca-Cola also produces the worlds most popular flavoured soft drinks: Fanta and Sprite, as well as diet Coke and Cherry Coke. These products can be mass marketed across the globe using standard promotions and advertising campaigns. This dramatically cuts promotional and advertising costs as these are distributed over a large market area. As Coca-Cola is the flagship of the Company, more money is spent advertising and promoting Coke than any of the other drinks. In the United Kingdom, Coca-Cola advertises all year round. Sponsorship and brand recognition The relationship Coca-Cola has with sport seeks to advance the development of sport overall. It aims to make sporting competitions possible by supporting events for the participation and pleasure of athletes and spectators. Coca-Cola has a long history of sports sponsorship including the Olympic Games, football, tennis and Special Olympics. Coca-Cola has been involved with the Olympic Games since 1928. It has been sponsoring the football World Cup since 1978 and is actively involved with the Wimbledon Championships. Coca-Colas support is at all levels. In 1993, Coca-Cola became sponsors of The Coca-Cola Cup in England, with Scotland following in 1994. Support is also provided for the English National Football Team and the Scottish International Youth Teams with a grass roots programme for mini-soccer with the Football Association Development Programme. Through sponsorship in leisure activities, Coca-Cola is able to combine the promise of refreshment with a sense of thrill, celebration and passion together with the universal necessity of a healthy, active lifestyle. Coca-Cola is a global product and can largely be marketed using a global approach, but the Company also engages in national and regional marketing strategies which illustrate a recognition of local and cultural differences. The first advertisement of Coca-Cola was an oil-cloth sign containing the phrase Delicious and Refreshing Now throughout the world, you can see Coca-Cola advertised in the cinema, on TV, on posters and in magazines. The Coca-Cola Companys overall advertising strategy is summed up by the phrase Think Global, Act Local Some campaigns are designed for worldwide use and others developed for individual markets. In some cases a product is developed for local consumption, such as Lilt in Great Britain and Ireland. The Always Coca-Cola campaign theme has been used worldwide to reinforce the universality of the brand which is always there. However, different advertisements are also made for each market. This enables Coca-Cola to choose the most relevant advertisements for its consumers and to choose how and when they should appear. In Great Britain, for example, where football is a national passion, Eat Football, Sleep Football, Drink Coca-Cola is a massively successful advertising campaign reinforcing the link between Coca-Cola and football while continuing the brands support of the game and fans. Sponsorship Sports Coca Cola sponsored the english football league in the beginning of the 2004-05 season (beginning August 2004) to the start of 2010/11 season, when the Football League found a new sponsor in NPower. Along with this, coca cola sponsored the coca-cola Football Camp, otherwise known as a soccer camp, that took place in South Africa, Pretoria during the 2010 FIFA World Cup, during which hundreds of teenagers from around the world were able to come together and share their passion for the game, partly due to Best Buys efforts through their program. Other major sponsorships include NASCAR, the NBA, the PGA Tour, NCAA Championships, the Olympic Games, the NRL, the FIFA World Cups and the UEFA Euro. In the Philippines, it has a team in the Philippine Basketball Association, the Powerade Tigers. Television The company sponsors the hit Fox singing-competition series American Idol. Coca-Cola is a sponsor of the nightly talk show on PBS, Charlie Rose in the US. Marketing Strategies of Coca Cola in UK Coca-Colas long-running Holidays are coming Christmas ad is to return to TV this weekend, this year with added social media integration. Coca Cola Trucks This years campaign will also see the return of the Coca-Cola Christmas Truck tour. The truck in the advert will visit more than 60 towns, cities and supermarkets in Great Britain and Ireland over the coming weeks. A dedicated hub will be set up on cokezone.co.uk to let consumers know where it will be visiting and will highlight local heroes, who will be nominated by their local communities to win the chance to have the truck visit their homes. The Christmas theme will continue on-pack, with the Sundblom-designed Coca-Cola Santa featuring on 2 litre bottles, 330ml cans and multipacks. Coca-Colas spot on Londons Piccadilly billboard is also part of the activity and will play the Holidays are Coming on rotation over the coming weeks. Zoe Howorth, marketing director for Coca-Cola Great Britain, says: Coca-Cola has a rich history of spreading Christmas joy through our marketing campaigns, with our Holidays are Coming ad and truck which are loved across the world. Were excited to be joining together with consumers in the countdown to Christmas and sprinkling some Coca-Cola Christmas magic, harnessing both the brands heritage and core media platforms to spread some festive cheer. http://www.marketingweek.co.uk/news/coke-holidays-are-coming-ad-returns/4004676.article Olympic marketing boosts Coke volumes Coca-Colas marketing to promote its sponsorship of the Olympics helped boost the number of products bought by consumers in its last financial quarter, but revenue was hit by promotional pricing across the sector. CocaCola Level of customer service Personal Selling When the distributor want to purchase the new product made from coca cola, the staff need to provide the suitable information to the distributor to ensure they have the understand on the new products. After sales service When the customers and distributor discover that, there may be some damage on the product after they purchase the product, the company has the responsibility to solve the problem. Warranties and guarantees Coca Cola make sure all machine is in good condition, has been factory tested and cleaned. Equipment may have some minor cosmetic imperfections but works perfectly and it has 30 day warranty for people who want to change the drinks. Conclusion Global companies need to generate high levels of profit in order to build on existing competitive advantages. For example, Coca-Cola needs to continually build on its brand image through successful advertising, promotion and provision of value for money products. The Company requires consistent expansion and development in its distribution systems. Coca-Cola is able to do this effectively due to its strategy of growth which has enabled the Company to develop international market leadership. Through manipulating and co-ordinating the tools of branding and advertising via image and activity, such as through sport sponsorship, The Coca-Cola Company seeks to provide refreshment for all of the people on the planet not just the 20% who currently account for 80% of sales.

Biomechanical Differences: Male and Female Marathon Runner

Biomechanical Differences: Male and Female Marathon Runner More than by brain size or tool-making ability, the human species was set apart from its ancestors by the ability to jog mile after lung-stabbing mile with greater endurance than any other primate. The introductory quotation (Hotz, 2004) simply, yet vividly, expresses the results of a recent study completed by two American scientists, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman, and released in the journal Nature(2004). Bramble and Lieberman contend that the ability to run long distances was the driving force shaping the modern human anatomy.Hotz’s characterization of early humans as marathon men and women from the tips of their distinctively short toes and long Achilles tendons to the tops of their biomechanically balanced heads (emphasis added) sets the backdrop for this essay—an exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners. After a few additional historical comments, this essay opens with a presentation of anatomical differences between men and women with specific reference to running then continues with definitions and descriptions of the term marathon, as a form of organized running sport, and definitions for the term biomechanics in preparation for a discussion of how the field of biomechanics is applied to running. With this information as a foundation, the objective and scope will be articulated followed by presentation of previous methods and findings revealed from a search of the literature on the topic of biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. These findings will be discussed and conclusions drawn. Finally, recommendations for further research will be presented. To return briefly to the research findings of Bramble, a paleontologist and biomechanics expert, and Lieberman, a physical anthropologist, to continue setting the backdrop for the essay, Bramble states: Running made us human, at least in an anatomical sense. We think running is one of the most transforming events in human history (Chui, 2004). Endurance running is an activity that is reserved for humans in the primate world and not common in other mammals with the exception of dogs, horses and a few others. Bramble and Lieberman contend that running permitted humans to scavenge and hunt for food over significant distances and that the high protein food they secured was instrumental in developing larger brains (Wilford, 2004). To facilitate running, humans developed several traits including large buttocks with strong muscles which connect the femur to the trunk of the body preventing the body from over-balancing with each step. In addition, humans have a lengthy arm-swinging stride and [l]ong ligaments and tendons—including the Achilles tendon—[which] serve as springs that store and release mechanical energy during running.(Hotz, 2004). Bramble’s reference to today’s running in the evolutionary context he and Lieberman established provides an appropriate introduction to the exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners (Wilford, 2004): Today, endurance running is primarily a form of exercise and recreation, but its roots may be as ancient as the origin of the human genus. The description of anatomical differences between men and women,which is focused on anatomical features that are involved in running,begins with a gender-neutral discussion to establish a foundation for the more gender-specific information. Rossi (2003) emphasizes the complexity of walking, a precursor torunning. He writes that half of the 650 muscles and tendons in thehuman body are involved in what most people consider to be the simpleact of walking. He suggests that, in the evolution of the human body,there were hundreds of adaptations that had to take place,adaptations that required repositioning of everything in the bodyover several million years. Rossi writes: The arms, no longer needed for branch swinging, became shorter, thelegs longer, the pelvis wider, the shoulders narrower, the neck longerand more slender, the spine changed from C-shape to S-shape. Majorchanges were required in the hip, knee and ankle joints. Hundreds ofmuscles, tendons, ligaments and joints gradually shifted in position,size and function. And of course, the new posture and gait requiredimportant changes in the size and position of all the organs of thechest and abdomen. Rossi suggests that some of these changes were extremely significantfrom a biomechanical perspective. For instance, he calls attention tothe blood pumping requirement of the upright human form: Daily in eachindividual, approximately 74,000 quarts of blood must travel through100,000 miles of blood vessels from the brain to the feet and legs in acircular pattern. Rossi emphasizes the human engineering challengethat was required to design a system that would counteract the effectsof gravity in moving blood vertically in this manner. Rossi’s commentsare particularly important in the context of the current discoursebecause they provide some insight into the current state of relevantanatomical features of today’s runners and how those features werederived. The anatomy of humans, unlike that of other living creatures,provides for speed and endurance. The unique characteristics related torunning include (Science in Africa, 2005, citing University of Utah Public Relations, 2004): †¢ Skull features. These features, which include sweating from the scalp and face, cool the blood. †¢ A balanced head. This shape of head with a relatively flat face,small teeth, and short snout moves the center of the mass backwardwhich helps to counter the effects of moving upward and downward duringrunning. †¢ A ligament running from the rear of the skill and neck downward tothe thoracic vertebrae. This feature serves as a shock absorber thataids the arms and shoulders in counterbalancing the head during runningactivity. †¢ Shoulders decoupled from the head and neck. This feature allowsrotation of the body while the head faces forward during running. †¢ A tall body. This feature, which includes a narrow trunk, waistand pelvis, provides for increased skin surface allowing for enhancedbody cooling and permits the upper and lower body segments to moveindependently. †¢ Short forearms. This feature permits the upper body to act as acounterbalance to the lower body during running activity while reducingthe muscle power required for maintaining flexed arms. †¢ Large vertebrae and disks. This feature permits the human back to accepted heavier loads when runners impact the ground. †¢ Large, strong connection between the pelvis and the spine. Thisfeature supports more stability and shock absorbing capacity duringrunning activity. †¢ Large buttocks. This feature, and the muscles that form it,stabilize the body during running activity. The connection of thesemuscles to the femur prevents the body from pitching forward. †¢ Long legs. This feature allows humans to take large strides duringrunning activity. The tendons and ligaments permit the legs to belighter and less muscular thereby requiring a smaller amount of energyto propel them while running. †¢ Large hip, knee, and ankle joint surface areas. These featuresprovide enhanced shock absorption by reducing the impact in any onespecific area. †¢ Arrangement of bones in the foot. This feature provides for a morerigid foot by creating a stable arch, allowing runners to push off in amore efficient manner and to use ligaments located on the bottom of thefeet as springs. †¢ Large heel bone, short toes, and a big toe. These features providefor enhanced shock absorption and increased capacity to push off duringrunning activity. With the running-related anatomical features applicable to allhumans as a foundation, the focus now turns to the differences inanatomical features between men and women, specifically those featuresthat are involved in running activity. Holschen (2004) writes that,until puberty, males and females are equal in terms of strength,aerobic power, heart size, and weight; they also have similar amountsof body fat. Starting at puberty, according to Holschen (2004), male and female sexhormones begin affecting bone and lean body mass, circulation, andmetabolism in different ways. A female typically has a wider pelvis,femoral anteversion (inward twisting of the femur), genu valgum (kneestouch but ankles are separated), and external tibial torsion (feet donot line up in a straight manner because of out-toeing from outwardrotation of the large calf bone). Center of gravity differences betweenmen and women are minimal, correlating more by body type and heightthan with gender. (Atwater, 1985, cited in Holschen, 2004). Whencompared with males, females typically have smaller bones accompaniedby smaller articular surfaces. They also have proportionately shorterlegs with resulting decreased potential force in certain maneuvers.(Holschen, 2004). At puberty, girls gain both fat and lean muscle mass due to theinfluence of female hormones; boys lose body fat and add muscle massdue to the influence of male hormones (Holschen, 2004). Women inadulthood have about ten percent more body fat than do their malecounterparts (Greydanus, D. and Patel, D., 2002, cited in Holschen,2004). The basal metabolic rate is approximately ten percent lower inwomen than in men. The presence of female hormones mandates that womenrely more on fat metabolism at any given exercise level when comparedto men. In addition, glycogen uptake, storage, and use are increased.(Holschen, 2004, citing Bonekat, H. W. et al., 1987; Dombovy, M. L. etal., 1987; Frankovich, R. J. and Lebrun, C. M., 2000; Nicklas, B. J. etal., 1989; Tarnopolsky, L. J., 1990) Cureton and associates (1988,cited in Holschen, 2004) attribute the differences in muscle strengthbetween men and woman to skeletal and cardiac muscular hypertrophy andmuscle mass percentage; they contend that muscle mass in men is fortypercent compared to twenty-three percent in women. Changes in body composition and circulatory capacity beginning atpuberty result in approximately twenty percent highercardio-respiratory capacity in men. Men also have comparatively higheroxygen-carrying capacity, larger heart and lung mass, a higher strokevolume, and higher maximal cardiac output which result in greatereffectiveness in aerobic and anaerobic activities, although trainingcan overcome the inherent differences (Williford, H. N. et al., 1993,cited in Holschen, 2004). The results of the current research point to fundamental anatomicaldifferences between men and woman, differences that largely begin toappear during puberty and which have some bearing on runningcapability. The term running can be defined as [moving] swiftly on foot sothat both feet leave the ground during each stride (American HeritageDictionary of the English Language, 2000). The research by Bramble andLieberman (2004, cited in Nature, 2004), which was presented earlier,seems to indicate that running has been part of human existence sinceits beginnings and, in fact, contributed significantly to developmentof human life today. Humans no longer require running for survival, atleast in their normal affairs; that is, typically, humans do not haveto run from danger or run in pursuit of animals to kill for food. Inmodern times, running has taken on a new form—competition foot racing.This competition racing can be against oneself to achieve one’s ownpersonal best or with others. Racing against others can take manyforms ranging from informal competitions between two young friendsracing against one another on a playground to very formal competitionssuch as those in the quadrennia l Olympics. The more formal runningcompetitions are typically classified by the length of the run: 100,200, 400, 800, 1500, 5000, and 10000 meters as well as marathons(Dollman, 2003). There are many terms that refer to specific forms of foot racing: run,dash, sprint, relay, meet, competitive trial of speed, footrace, andmarathon (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Of these, the termsdash and sprint are typically used interchangeably to describe ashort, fast run or race (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1988) or ashort, swift movement (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Organizeddashes and sprints are commonly of 50 meters, 100 meters, 200 meters,50 yards, 100 yards, and 200 yards in length (Webster’s New WorldThesaurus, 1997). Marathons are a form of long-distance running, whichare on- and off-the-track competitions of more than 3000 meters (Hlus,1997). Specifically, a marathon is a footrace of 42 kilometers, 195meters (26 miles, 385 yards) run over an open course, or anylong-distance or endurance contest People who compete in marathons arecalled marathoners (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1998).Physiologically, there is a fundamental difference between a sprint ordash and a marathon. According to Pritchard (1994), A sprinter canexert maximum force throughout the run, but this is not possible forlonger runs, where propulsive force must be reduced to match energyavailability. Historically, marathons are not new events. According to legend, thename marathon is derived from the Greek city, Marathon, to commemoratePheidippides’s run from that city to Athens to announce Greek victoryover the Persians. The marathon was introduced to the Olympics in 1896and today’s official distance was established in 1908. (Hlus, 1997; TheColumbia Encyclopedia, 2005) Today, in addition to marathon races inthe Olympics, many cities throughout the world serve as sites forannual or other periodic marathons (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005). A new form of marathon race has recently taken form—the ultramarathon,which is any organized footrace extending beyond the standard marathonrunning distance of 42 kilometers, 195 meters†¦[they] typically begin at 50 kilometers and extend to enormous distances (Blaikie, n. d.).Standard distances for ultramarathons are 50 and 100 kilometers and 50and 100 miles (Meyers, 2002) with the longest certified race being theSri Chinmoy, a 2092 kilometer race held annually in New York (Blaikie,n. d.). The research produced numerous and varied definitions for the termbiomechanics. The following are representative of the findings: †¢ The study of the mechanics of a living body, especially of theforces exerted by muscles and gravity on the skeletal structure. (TheAmerican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). †¢ [The] application of mechanical engineering principles andtechniques in the field of medicine and surgery, studying naturalstructures to improve those produced by humans (The HutchinsonEncyclopedia, 2003). †¢ [A] science examining the forces acting upon and within a biologicalstructure, and the effects produced by those forces (The University ofCalgary, n. d.). †¢ [T]he science that deals with forces and their effects, applied to biological systems (Freivalds, 2004). †¢ [T]he application of the principles and techniques of mechanics to the human body in motion (Snowden, 2001). †¢ Biomechanics is a specific field which evaluates the motion of aliving organism†¦and the actions of forces on that organism†¦acombination of several different areas of study [including] anatomy andphysiology, kinematics (the study of motion without regard to itscauses), kinesiology (the study of human movement) and kinetics (thestudy of forces acting on a system) (National Endurance SportsTrainers Association, 2005). In furnishing a definition for biomechanics, the Quintic ConsultancyLtd. (2005) provides some additional insight into the origin anddetails of the term, stating that the name is derived from the Greekbios meaning life and mekhaniki meaning mechanics, adding that theseindividual terms are combined to mean the mechanics of life forms.The biomechanics discipline includes research into various life formsincluding plants, insects, reptiles, birds, fish, humans, and others.Within the human specialty, topics include mechanics of bone, tooth,muscle, tendon, ligament, cartilage, skin, prostheses, blood flow, airflow, eye movement, joint movement [and] whole body movement (TheQuintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005). Historically, according to Knudson (2003), the study of humanbiomechanics has alternated between emphasizing each of its twocomponents—the biological and the mechanical. Atwater (1980, cited inKnudson, 2003) claims that, during the first half of the twentiethcentury, scholars emphasized medicine and anatomy under the termkinesiology. The distinct field of biomechanics was born from the workof biomechanists in the 1960s and 1970s. From that point the fieldbegan to emphasize mechanics over biology. Today, the competing forcesto move the discipline either toward a biological emphasis or toward amechanical emphasis continue (Knudson, 2003). The field of biomechanics, already narrowed in a previous sectionfrom consideration of all life forms to only humans for the purpose ofthis essay, can be focused even further to a sub-field called sportsbiomechanics (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005): Sports biomechanics uses the scientific methods of mechanics tostudy the effects of various forces on the sports performer. It isconcerned, in particular, with the forces that act on the humanneuromusculoskeletal system, velocities, accelerations, torque,momentum, and inertia. It also considers aspects of the behavior ofsports implements, footwear and surfaces where these affect athleticperformance or injury prevention. Sports biomechanics can be divided upinto two sections: performance improvement [and] injury prevention. The Australian Sports Commission (n. d.) furnishes additionaldescriptive information on the application of biomechanics to sports,using a term the Commission calls applied sports biomechanics whichincorporates techniques from physics, human anatomy, mathematics,computing and engineering to analyse technique to prevent injury andimprove performance. The Commission’s division of sports biomechanicsinto two categories—performance improvement and injuryprevention—echoes the classifications offered by The QuinticConsultancy Ltd. Williams (2003) describes how biomechanics can help runnerperformance, specifically that of the marathoner. Leading into hisrecommendations, he describes how marathon runners use a simplebiomechanical strategy known as drafting off another runner whenrunning into the wind to reduce the adverse effects of air resistanceand reduce oxygen consumption for the latter part of the race. Hewrites: The goal of the sport biomechanist is to improve movement efficiency,mainly by maximizing propulsive forces and minimizing resistive forces,and thus provide the athlete with a mechanical edge. Using high-speedcinematography, the biomechanist can analyze a runner’s form and detectproblems in running form that may be inefficient, such as overstriding,and that may waste energy. Although most elite and experiencedmarathoners have developed efficient running styles, even a smallimprovement in running efficiency may make a significant differenceover the duration of a marathon. In addition to the strategy of drafting off another runner,Williams offers several other biomechanical strategies includingselecting the proper sportswear (i.e. uniform and shoes) and optimizingbody weight and composition. Thus far the topics of anatomical differences between men and womenwith specific reference to running; definitions and descriptions of theterms marathon (as an organized, competitive form of running) andbiomechanics; and the application of biomechanics to running have beenpresented and discussed. With this as a foundation, the focus of thediscourse now turns to the topic of biomechanical differences betweenmale and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. The objective of this portion of the essay will be to explore thebiomechanical differences between male and female marathon runnersthrough a review and analysis of selected literature on the topic andrelated issues. The scope of the literature review will include marathon running withspecific reference to available information on the differences betweenmales and females. Although running of shorter distances (e.g. sprintsand dashes) and longer distances (e.g. ultramarathons) as well as othersports activities are excluded from the specific scope of this essay,references will be made to these activities when they related tomarathon running. Performance improvement and injury prevention werementioned as the two primary areas addressed by applied sportsbiomechanics. Gender-specific issues in each of these areas will beexplored briefly as well. REVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON METHODS AND FINDINGS One researcher who has studied gender differences in enduranceperformance, including marathon running, is Stephen Seiler (1996) ofThe Institute for Sport, Agder College in Kristianstad, Norway. Hewrites: Some years ago it was proposed by some that women wouldactually perform better [than men] at ultra-endurance type activities.This theory has been disproved in the laboratory and in practice. Aslong as women are women, I don’t think they will surpass men, statesNorways perennial marathon winner Grete Waitz (quoted in Holden,2004). The anatomical differences between females and their malecounterparts, specifically those that affect running, were presented inthe introduction. Now an attempt will be made to show that the generalanatomical differences between men and women extend to biomechanicaldifferences that affect marathon running performance and injury. Holschen (2004) writes that [T]he female athlete remains less wellunderstood and less well studied compared with male athletes,especially in the areas of performance factors, repetitive stress, andacute injuries. She continues: Logical reasons for this include: (a)a limited two-generation span of the high-profile elite female; (b)fewer females involved in coaching, research, and sports medicine; and(c) limited areas of female youth sports historically (gymnastics,swimming, dance). The reality of Holschen’s findings proved to be truein the current research activity. There were remarkably few availablesources on the biomechanics involved in women’s marathon running. Mostof the research either applied to males or did not identify the gender.Results from a review of selected research literature will be presentedin this section beginning with gender-differentiated research resultson running performance. Following this, results of research into thetwo applied sports biomechan ics specialties will be presented with afocus on studies concerning footwear and injuries. Holden (2004) writes about performance in running with specialattention to female runners. She quotes physiologist Henrik Larsen ofthe Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre in explaining women’s marathonperformance vis-à  -vis men: Women had not developed long distance;that’s why the improvement is much greater on the marathon. Larsen,who seems to attribute the performance improvements of femalemarathoners to focused training instead of anatomic factors, claimsthat [w]e don’t see any higher oxidative capacity in women. Holdenalso offers comments by exercise physiologist Timothy Noakes of theUniversity of Cape Town, South Africa who agrees with Larsen’sassessment: A smaller body frame gives women an edge on endurance†¦butmen can run 10% faster even when the difference in body size iscontrolled for. Stephen Seiler (1996), who was quoted at the start of this sectionstating that the proposal that women could perform better inultra-endurance activities has been disproved, confirms that there aresome physiological differences between the sexes that impactperformance in females independent of age. He notes that there is aten percent difference in marathon times between men and women, addingthat this difference is the same across the distance runningperformance spectrum. He attributes this difference, not to adifference in training, but to physiological differences. He studiedmaximal oxygen consumption, the lactate threshold, and efficiency toanalyze the differences between men and women as these factors mightaffect long-distance running performance: †¢ Maximal Oxygen Consumption. There is a 43 percent differencebetween men and women with men possessing a VO2 max (oxygen-deliveringcapacity measure) of 3.5 liters per minute and women with a capacity of2.0 liters per minute. Seiler attributes this in part to male size; menare larger. But, even when size is factored in, male oxygen consumptioncapacity is still fifteen to twenty percent higher. Males have agreater capacity to deliver oxygen to their muscles and organs. †¢ The Lactate Threshold. This is the point at which lactic acidbegins to accumulate at higher than normal levels in the blood streamindicating an exercise intensity boundary at which the level ofintensity can be maintained over a long period and that which willresult in quick fatigue. Seiler does not believe that lactatethresholds are different for men and women as a percentage of their VO2max. †¢ Efficiency. After finding conflicting information comparing theefficiency of males and females—revealing that females are lessefficient, more efficient, or the same as males in terms ofefficiency—Seiler believes that differences in efficiency do notaccount for the differences in endurance performance. Seiler concludes with his determination that the ten percentperformance difference between men and women in endurance running canbe attributed to the first of the three physiological factors hestudied—maximal oxygen consumption. Another researcher who explored gender differences in athletics,and especially in endurance events, is Dollman (2003). Citing Shepard(2000), Dollman writes that there is consistent evidence, based onobservations, that males possess larger measures of the following(quoted): †¢ Heart volume, even when corrected for stature. †¢ Haematocrit, which gives males a 13 percent greater oxygen-carrying capacity than females. †¢ Plasma volume. †¢ Total muscle mass, which means that females perform the sameabsolute task at a higher percentage of maximum voluntary contraction,with concomitant vascular impedance limiting cardiac ejection and peakcardiac output. In addition, male skeletal muscles may have a higher succinatedehydrogenase (an integral membrane protein) concentration (Dollman,2003, citing Costill, et al., 1987). Males may produce bettermechanical efficiency during running (Dollman, 2003, citing Miura,1997) although this is arguable as it may be rooted in cultural origins(Dollman, 2003, citing Shepard, 2000). Now attention will turn briefly to a review of selected researchinto the two primary application areas addressed by applied sportsbiomechanics: running performance and injuries. Regarding performance,footwear will be discussed followed by a presentation of selectedfindings on research into injuries. Gender issues will be introduced. Lipsky (2001, citing Hennig, 2001) presented research findings ongender-specific requirements for athletic footwear designed forrunning. The research experiment involved fifteen women and seventeenmen of the same body weights, heights, and ages. Each subject wore thesame shoe size and each tested five types of shoes which included threestyles of men’s shoes and two styles for women. Using Kistler forceplatforms at a set velocity, ground force reactions, tibialacceleration, angular foot motion, and plantar pressures at eightstrategic locations on the foot were measured. According to Lipsky, theexperiment revealed that none of the variables demonstrated asignificant interaction among gender and footwear type meaning, Lipskycontends, that women had the same biomechanical dilemmas in men’sshoes as they did in their own footwear. Despite similarity in thetest subjects’ weight and other factors, men exhibited higher pressurerates in all regions of the foot. Men had sig nificantly higher heelloads, but less midfoot loads, indicating that the arches of women donot support the middle of their feet. According to Lipsky, theseresults support the conclusions that women have a stronger collapse ofthe longitudinal arch†¦during weight bearing and have an increasedtendency of pronation and the smaller amount of pressure to theground. The recommendation from this study is that women should selectrunning shoes that protect against overpronation. This, according toLipsky, will help prevent knee injuries. Bartold (2004) adds to the literature on the differences inrequirements for athletic shoes for men and women. He claims thatrunning footwear is largely designed and manufactured for malerunners, making little recognition that women have significant injuryissues compared to men. Although Bartold acknowledges that reasons forinjuries are not scientifically established, he indicates thatproposals have been made that known differences in structure maypredispose female athletes to differences in running mechanics, andthese differences may lead to specific injuries, continuing by statingthat [a]necdotally, we have excellent evidence [that] the particularbiomechanics of female athletes and the way they run predisposes themto specific injury patterns. With regard to injuries, Parfit (1994) compared running injuries ofmiddle distance runners and marathon runners, concluding that thelatter incur more injuries when compared to the former (approximatelyeighty-two percent for middle distance runners compared to ninety-sevenpercent for marathoners). Acknowledging validity questions due to smallrunner populations studied and lack of injury definitions, Parfit foundthat whilst marathon runners suffered from back problems and hipailments, middle distance runners were more susceptible to kneeproblems, stress fractures, and shin splints. Certain types of knee, shoulder and back injuries are more commonin females and can in part be attributed to differences in body shapeand biomechanics, reports Glasgow, Scotland’s Daily Record (2004).Taunton et al. (2002) found that there were significant differencesbetween running injuries incurred by men and women. According to thisstudy, knee injuries seemed to be the most common injury in both sexeswith men experiencing higher incidences of the following injuries (thefirst percentage shown in parenthesis is for men; the second forwomen): †¢ plantar fasciitis, an injury to the fascia connective tissue on the bottom of the foot (54%/46%); †¢ meniscal injury, a condition in the knee cartilage that acts ascushion between the thigh bone (femur) and shin bone (tibia) (69%/31%); †¢ patellar tendinopathy, a rupture in the tendon that connects the kneecap to the tibia (57%/43%); †¢ Achilles tendinopathy, tendon pain or dysfunction in the muscle that connects the calf to the heel of the foot (58%/42%); †¢ gastrocnemius injury, a condition in the largest, most prominentmuscle in the calf which allows for extending the foot and bending theknee (70%/30%); †¢ adductor injury, a condition, such as a tear, in the muscle in the inner thigh (68%/32%); and †¢ osteoarthritis of the knee, a degenerative joint diseasecharacterized by breakdown of the articular cartilage in the joint(71%/29%). The study by Taunton et al. (2002) revealed that women experiencedhigher incidences of the following running injuries (the firstpercentage shown in parenthesis is for women; the second for men): †¢ PFPS, or patellofemoral pain syndrome, a pain behind the kneesometimes known as runner’s knee (62%/32%, does not add to 100%); †¢ ITBFS, or iliotibial band friction syndrome, a conditioncharacterized by injury to the thick band of fibrous tissue that runsdown the outside of the leg beginning at the hip and extending to theouter side of the shin bone just below the knee joint (62%/32%, doesnot ad